Although there may be many differences between these two approaches as to explain the striking discrepancy in outcome, one difference is TLR9-signaling restricted to the CM versus TLR9-stimulation of all cardiac TLR9 responder cells. Indeed, our results in the present study suggest that future studies have to consider TLR9-signaling through cardiac cells other than the CM. CFs constitute nodal cells within the myocardium and are important in cardiac remodeling upon heart disease. This study is predominantly an in vitro conducted study, and thus conclusions regarding in vivo consequences are speculative. However, our findings may suggest a sentinel role for CFs in promoting cardiac TLR9-responses. This should be considered in future studies on the pathophysiological significance of TLR9 in cardiovascular diseases. Airway epithelium functions as a complex physical barrier that defends against exposure to potentially Scutellarein harmful inhaled substances and microbial pathogens. It is now believed that airway epithelial cells also play a central role in innate and adaptive immune response as well as mucosal inflammation that are closely integrated into the development of allergic airway diseases such as asthma. Airway epithelial cells produces host defense molecules, Xanthiside cytokines and chemokines upon activation of pathogen recognition receptors such as toll-like receptors. Epithelium-derived cytokines recruits dendritic cells, T cells and B cells into close proximity of epithelium to mediate adaptive immune response through interaction with epithelial cells. On the other hand, epithelial cells can serve as a target for immune cells, implicated in the immune response and mucus production in inflammatory airway diseases. Therefore, further investigation of functions of epithelial cells in the immune and inflammatory responses can not only aid in understanding the pathophysiological basis of airway diseases, but also help for the future therapeutical invention of these diseases. TGF-bs belong to a widely expressed family of cytokines with pleiotropic effects on a variety of cellular functions such as cell growth, proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis.